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Wednesday, March 31, 2010

Rekabentuk Kereta Yang Pelik Tapi Unik !!!!!!!!











TAHUKAH ANDA..???Sejarah Dinar Emas...




Dinar Emas dan Dirham Perak


Sejarah Pengenalan Dinar Emas dan Dirham Perak.


Kesohoran dinar sebagai satu matawang rasmi dalam sektor ekonomi sudah lama tersemat dalam lembaran sejarah Tamadun Islam. Dewasa ini komoditi ini seringkali dicanangkan sebagai instrumen alternatif dalam aktiviti ekonomi dunia semasa. Fakta ini adalah berasaskan kepada nilai intrinsik atau tersendiri yang diyakini boleh digunapakai secara lebih meluas serta konsisten. Namun demikian, masih ramai belum mengetahui dari mana dan bagaimana ia boleh berkembang sehingga menjadi satu matawang utama dalam kronologi ketamadunan Islam.

Sekiranya dinar emas mampu dinobatkan sebagai matawang utama pada ketika itu adalah tidak mustahil seandainya penggunaan komoditi ini boleh diperkenalkan semula sebagai matawang alternatif pada alaf baru ini. Barangkali slogan “Nothing Beats Gold, Zero Inflation in 1400 years“ adalah amat berketepatan dan bersesuaian dalam menyatakan hakikat tersebut. Terfikirkah anda semenjak zaman Nabi Muhammad S.A.W lagi kita tidak pernah mendengar serta mengalami keadaan inflasi. Tetapi pada hari ini ungkapan tersebut seringkali “menjelma“ sambil disulami atau lebih sinonim dengan kelesuan ekonomi sejagat. Kenapa semua ini boleh berlaku…jawapannya ialah matawang konvensional yang tersedia ada tidak berlandaskan pada sandaran emas secara mutlak. Apa yang berlaku pada hari ini ialah dunia menggunakan wang kertas yang rezabnya hanyalah dalam bentuk nisbah peratusan emas yang diperuntukkan dan bukannya instrumen itu sendiri yang memiliki nilai emas secara keseluruhannya. Justeru marilah kita mengimbas kembali keunggulan serta kegemilangan dinar emas semenjak bermulanya era ketamadunan Islam.

Masyarakat Arab Jahiliyyah pada ketika itu menggunakan dinar emas Heraclius Byzantine yang berasal daripada negeri Syam manakala dirham perak Sasaniyah pula dari Iraq. Tatkala itu mereka tidak mempunyai matawang tersendiri untuk melaksanakan urusniaga perniagaan dalam mahupun luar negara. Penggunaan kedua-dua matawang ini adalah bagi memudahkan urusniaga terutamanya pada masa yang melibatkan perdagangan utama di Syam pada musim panas manakala di Yaman pada musim sejuk. Namun demikian, keadaan mulai berubah apabila Nabi Muhammad S.A.W dipilih sebagai Rasul, dinar dan dirham telah dinaiktarafkan sebagai matawang rasmi urusniaga sektor ekonomi kerana terdapat keseragaman bagi tujuan memudahkan urusniaga. Ketika ini jugalah reka bentuk berunsur Islam mula menyusup dalam penempaan dinar serta dirham. Pada tahun 18 H atau 20 H, Saidina Omar r.a telah menambah pada dirham Sasaniyah beberapa elemen dengan tulisan khat Kufi seperti Bismillah, Bismillah Rabbi dan Alhamdullillah serta sesetengahnya Muhammad Rasulullah yang ditempa pada keliling gambar Kisra. Beliau turut menetapkan piawaian bahawa 10 dirham bersamaan 7 dinar dan ini kekal digunapakai sehingga kini. Satu dinar mempunyai 91.6% atau 22 karat seberat 4.25 gram manakala dirham ialah syiling perak seberat 2.975 gram.

Dalam rekaan ini ukiran pada permukaan matawang adalah rekabentuk Islam yang khusus tanpa wujudnya elemen-elemen Byzantine dan Parsi muncul pada tahun 76 H hasil cetusan idea Khalifah Abd al-Malik bin Marwan pada zaman Bani Umaiyyah. Senario ini turut dimangkinkan oleh perselisihan faham yang berlaku di antara baginda dengan Raja Rom. Pada ketika itu khalifah Abd Al-Malik bin Marwan telah diktiraf oleh Ibn Jarir al-Tabari dan Ibn al-Athir sebagai perintis menempa dinar dan dirham dalam unsur-unsur Islam.

Aplikasi dinar tidak hanya berlegar di bumi Arab tetapi melangkaui kepada ketamadunan Andalusia. Kegiatan perdagangan berkembang pesat selama 700 tahun di Andalusia telah memangkin penggunaan dinar emas serta perak sebagai matawang utama. Pada tahun 716 M, umat Islam Andalusia telah mula menempa dinar emas dengan ukiran bahasa Arab serta ditulis “Muhammad Rasulluah” disamping mencatatkan nama Andalusia iaitu tempat tempahan dinar berserta tahun diperbuat. Di belakang dinar emas ini turut diukir dengan tulisan Latin yang bersesuaian dengan kehidupan masyarakat Islam Andalusia pada ketika itu. Bukti sejarah juga menunjukkan bahawa setelah tamatnya pemerintahan Andalusia, masyarakat semasa pemerintahan Kristian masih meneruskan penggunaan dinar emas selama lebih 400 tahun. Dalam era moden ini, pada tahun 1992 dinar emas pertama Eropah kembali ditempah di Granada, Sepanyol yang sekaligus merupakan sesuatu peristiwa yang sungguh menarik.

Menurut analisa yang dibuat sepanjang kecemerlangannya dinar emas turut mengalami ketidaktentuan terhadap cabaran serta krisis semasa. Pada suatu ketika stok emas tidak mencukupi memandangkan siri peperangan semakin meruncing. Justeru perak dicampurkan tembaga menjadi matawang rasmi dan digunakan di Mesir serta Syam di bawah pentadbiran Bani Ayyub. Penggunaan dinar serta dirham terus bertahan aplikasinya pada masa keagungan kerajaan Othmaniah Turki (1299M-1924M). Pada hari ini, nama dinar serta dirham masih digunakan sebagai matawang rasmi di beberapa buah negara di Timur Tengah seperti dinar di Tunisia, Kuwait, Libya, Bahrain, Algeria, Jordan manakala dirham Di Emiriah Arab Bersatu, Qatar dan Maghribi.


Di Malaysia berkat pengalaman kelesuan ekonomi global pada 1997 dinar emas yang diperbuat daripada emas 9166 telah mula dikembalikan kegemilangan sebagai medium penyimpan nilai yang tinggi, stabil, sentiasa berpotensi untuk meningkat nilai serta komoditi yang paling selamat. Dalam konteks yang lebih luas dinar emas turut mampu dijadikan perantaraan urusniaga hartanah, gaji dan bonus pekerja, mahar dan hantaran perkahwinan, urusan haji dan umrah, zakat dan fitrah serta semua pembayaran perniagaan dalam dan luar negara bagi negara yang berminat. Ini memandangkan dinar emas mempunyai nilai intrinsik atau tersendiri yang diterimapakai oleh masyarakat dunia. Nilai emas adalah stabil dan meningkat dari semasa ke semasa berbanding matawang konvesional yang seringkali menjadi mangsa “serang hendap” para penyangak matawang antarabangsa bagi mengaut keuntungan mudah dan besar.

TAHUKAH ANDA? : BANTAL DAN KAJIAN NYA....



Terdapat beberapa ketegori bantal dan perwatakan:-

1) Memeluk Bantal
Mereka yang suka memeluk bantal biasanya berjiwa seni. Mereka mempunyai penghargaan yang tinggi terhadap lukisan, muzik dan sastera. Perasaan mereka halus dan jiwa mereka romantik.Kadangkala ada yangboleh membaca peristiwa yang akan berlaku melalui mimpi.Mereka juga sangat prihatin
terhadap kesusilaan.

BANTAL DAN KAJIAN NYA....


Terdapat beberapa ketegori bantal dan perwatakan:-

1) Memeluk Bantal
Mereka yang suka memeluk bantal biasanya berjiwa seni. Mereka mempunyai penghargaan yang tinggi terhadap lukisan, muzik dan sastera. Perasaan mereka halus dan jiwa mereka romantik.Kadangkala ada yangboleh membaca peristiwa yang akan berlaku melalui mimpi.Mereka juga sangat prihatin
terhadap kesusilaan.

2) Menggunakan Banyak Bantal
Mereka biasanya kurang keyakinan. Dalam kehidupan seharian mereka memerlukan banyak pendamping. Mereka jarang membuat keputusan sendiri,sebaliknya mendapatkan pandangan orang lain.

3) Tidur Dengan Satu Bantal
Mereka bukan jenis mengada-ngada dan boleh menerima keadaan seadanya.
Mereka juga membuat keputusan berdasarkan fikiran dan bukan nafsu semata-mata.

4) Meletakkan Bantal Di Bawah Kaki
Mereka mempunyai sifat kurang baik. Mereka jarang bergaul dgn org ramai, malah kaku dalam pergaulan. Ini menyebabkan mereka cenderung bersifat egois. Mereka juga gemar menempuh jalan pintas untuk mencapai cita2. Mereka tdk suka berusaha.

5) Tidur tanpa Bantal
Mereka memiliki sifat percaya diri yang sangat tinggi. Kadangkala sifat percaya diri ini akhirnya akan membawa kepada sifat ego.

Hasil Lukisan Pada Era Memphis





TAHUKAH ANDA KIOSK TELEFON PIAWAI PERTAMA DIHASILKAN…



Kiosk telefon piawai pertama diperkenalkan oleh United Kingdom Pejabat Pos telah dihasilkan dengan konkrit pada 1920 dan direka sebagai K1 (Kiosk No.1). Reka bentuk ini tidak sama dengan kotak telefon merah yang biasa dilihat sekarang.

Kotak telefon merah adalah penyebab pesaingan pada 1924 untuk rekaan sebuah kiosk yang akan menjadi sesuai bagi London Metropolitan Boroughs yang telah mencegah keusahaan Pejabat Pos untuk mendirikan kiosk K1 di jalan mereka.

Royal Fine Art Commission memainkan peranan penting dalam pilihan piawai kiosk British. Oleh kerana ketidakgembiraan besar dengan reka bentuk GPO, Metropolitan Boroughs Joint Standing Committee mengaturkan suatu pesaingan untuk yang lebih bagus pada 1923, tetapi penilaiannya amat mengesalkan. The Birmingham Civic Society kemudian menghasilkan reka bentuknya sendiri - dalam konkrit reinforced - tetapi ia telah dilaporkan oleh Pengarah Telefon bahawa reka bentuk yang dihasilkan oleh Office of the Engineer-in-Chief lebih disukai; seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Architects’ Journal, 'tiada orang dengan segala ilmu reka bentuk dapat merasa apa-apa tetapi kemarahan dengan coraknya yang kelihatan meikmati fikiran rasmi.' The Birmingham Civic Society tidak menyerah diri dan, dengan tambahan tekanan dari Royal Institute of British Architects, Town Planning Institute dan Royal Academy, Postmaster General dipaksa untuk memikir sekali lagi; dan penilaiannya adalah bahawa RFAC mengaturkan pesaingan terhad.

Pengatur menjemput entries dari tiga arkitek terhormat dan, bersamaan dengan reka bentuk dari Pejabat Pos dan dari The Birmingham Civic Society, Fine Arts Commission menghakimi pesaingan itu dan memilih reka bentuk yang dikirimkan oleh Giles Gilbert Scott sebagai pemenang. Pejabat Pos memilih untuk membuatnya dalam cast iron (Scott telah bercadangkan mild steel) dan untuk mengecatnya merah (Scott telah mengcadangkan perak, dengan bahagian dalam "hijau-biru") dan, dengan tukaran kecil lain pada perincian, reka bentuk Scott telah dibawa ke dalam perkhidmatan sebagai Kiosk No.2 or K2.

Sejak 1926 K2 telah diaturkedudukan di dan sekitar London dan K1 terus didirikan di tempat lain.

K3 direkabentuk pada 1930, sekali lagi oleh Gilbert Scott adalah mirip dengan K2 tetapi telah dibinakan dari konkrit dan pertujuan untuk kegunaan seluruh negara. Lebih murah dari K2, ia masih lagi lebih mahal sedikit dari K1 dan ia masih manjadi pilihan untuk tempat-tempat gajian-kecil. Skema warna piawai untuk K1 dan K3 adalah krim, dengan bar berpasang kaca merah.

K4 (direkabentuk oleh Post Office Engineering Department pada 1927) menggabungkan sebuah kotak pos dan mesin untuk membeli setem pos di bahagian luar. Hanya 50 kiosk dengan reka bentuk ini telah dibinakan.

TAHUKAH ANDA SEJARAH MENGENAI VIRUS !!!

Menurut kamus pelajar DBP, virus bermaksud `hidupan seni yang menyebarkan penyakit dan menularkannya. Dalam istilah komputer, virus adalah sejenis program parasit yang tertanam di dalam salah sebuah perisian atau program. Kebiasaannya ia disimpan atau terletak di kawasan tertentu dalam disk yang dinamakan boot sector. Virus akan diaktifkan apabila kita menjalankan sesuatu program atau perisian yang dijangkiti virus tersebut atau cuba mengakses disk yang dijangkiti.

Perkataan virus adalah berasal daripada perkataan latin bermaksud racun. Virus telah diketahui oleh manusia lebih daripada 20 tahun yang lalu. Tetapi mengikut rekod, virus komputer telah dicipta pada tahun 1985 oleh dua orang adik-beradik iaitu Anjal dan Basit dari Lahore, Pakistan dimana mereka mencipta virus ini adalah sebagai pelindung kepada perisisan yang telah mereka cipta dari ditiru atau disalin oleh orang lain. Virus komputer yang pertama di rekodkan ini digelar sebagai 'Brain'.

Virus komputer merupakan sebuah aturcara atau program yang berupaya menyerang dan merosakkan fail-fail komputer yang dijangkitinya. Bertukar dan membiak dengan sendiri adalah satu "kemahirannya" yang tidak boleh dipertikaikan lagi. Malah, virus komputer memiliki keupayaan parasit, di mana ia boleh bercantum dengan sektor boot atau fail di dalam komputer anda lalu bertindak untuk merosakkan serta menghancurkan sistem fail tersebut .

Berbeza dengan virus biologi, virus komputer boleh dicipta dengan menggunakan bahasa pengaturcaraan seperti C, C++ selain bahasa himpunan (assembly language). Pereka virus akan membiana set-set aturcara tertentu dan akan memastikan ia berfungsi untuk merosakkan kandungan fail-fail perisian secara meluas atau berdikit-dikit. Satu lagi alternatif ialah penggunaan perisian yang berupaya menghasilkan virus secara automatik berdasarkan ciri-ciri tetentu misalnya dengan menggunakan Enjin Virus SMEG (Virus Engine). Virus yang tersenarai di sini pernah mencipta nama di persada antarabangsa pada suatu ketika .

Saintis komputer telah menemui beberapa persamaan antara virus biologi (seperti "H5N1") dan virus komputer. Pertama sekali, kedua-duanya memerlukan perumah sebagai tempat tinggal. Dalam kes virus komputer, perumah biasanya adalah fail atau cakera yang telah dijangkiti. Kedua, kedua-duanya mampu mereplika (membuat salinan) sendiri dari satu perumah ke perumah yang lain. Akhir sekali, kedua-duanya boleh mengakibatkan kerosakan pada perumah tersebut. Namun sekurang-kurang terdapat satu perbezaan: "virus komputer dicipta oleh manusia sementara virus biologi tidak begitu." Apabila virus menyerang, kesannya bermula daripada paparan skrin yang menyakitkan hati hinggalah kerosakan data yang teruk dan mengakibatkan kemusnahan yang dahsyat.

Untuk memburukkan lagi keadaan, virus bernama "virus makro" menyertai dunia komputer pada 1995. Keupayaannya menjangkiti fail dokumen telah menidakkan pendapat yang mengatakan "virus hanya boleh menjejaskan fail program." Selain itu, kebiasaan bertukar-tukar dokumen antara pengguna komputer telah menyemarakkan lagi penyebaran virus makro.

20 tahun yang lalu tidak wujud sebarang virus komputer. Dalam tahun 1983, program virus yang pertama dihasilkan oleh seorang pelajar Universiti of Carlifornia iaitu Fred Cohen. Sebenarnya virus ini dicipta hanyalah untuk menyedarkan tentang bahayanya kod komputer sedemikian rupa. Virus telah diketahui oleh manusia lebih daripada 20 tahun yang lalu.

Berdasarkan rekod dunia, virus komputer telah dicipta pada tahun 1985 oleh dua orang adik-beradik iaitu Anjal dan Basit dari Lahore, Pakistan dimana mereka mencipta virus ini adalah sebagai pelindung kepada perisisan yang telah mereka cipta dari ditiru atau di salin oleh orang lain. Virus komputer yang pertama di rekodkan ini digelar sebagai 'Brain'.

Setahun kemudian beberapa serangan virus komputer dilaporkan , antaranya Jurusalem yang berasal dari Israel.Jurusalem adalah virus penghuni ingatan (memory resident ) pertama. Ia memasangkan dirinya kedalam ingatan komputer terpasang.

Selain Jurusalem, virus Stoned, Cascade dan Friday 13th juga dikesan kali pertama pada tahun 1987. Pada tahun 1990, banyak virus yang mempunyai keupayaan canggih merebak secara meluas. Antaranya Stealth iaitu virus yang boleh menyembunyikan dirinya atau kerosakan yang dilakukannya.

Polymorphism atau lebih dikenali sebagai Trojan Horse - virus yang sentiasa mengubah dirinya semasa merebak. Armoring yang melindungi kod virus dari dibongkar oleh penyelidik antivirus dan Multipartite iaitu sejenis virus yang menyerang perisian dan boot sector secara serentak. Ada lagi sejenis virus yang seakan–akan Trojan Horse kerana ia akan menyalin kembali dirinya, perbezaanya ia menyalin dirinya tanpa mengubah kod aturcaranya. Ia akan merebak sehingga memenuhi ruang storan. Virus ini dikenali sebagai worm. Ia juga akan menyalin dirinya dan menghantar emel kepada senarai emel yang ada di dalam buku alamat yang terdapat dalam akaun emel pengguna tersebut. Ia juga mampu menyerang rangkaian internet melalui emel.

Tahun 1992 menyaksikan kemunculan virus yang paling popular sehingga kini iaitu MICHELANGLO. Virus ini dikenali sebagai jenis `time bomb’.

Pada tahun 1994 pula internet mula mengalami serangan virus. Namun ia tidak berlaku secara meluas dan tiada liputan dibuat. Setahun selepas itu apabila Windows 95 dikeluarkan sejenis virus baru ditemui iaitu virus macro yang dinamakan sebagai Concept. Ia berupaya menjangkiti fail-fail daripada pelbagai platform atau sistem pengoperasian . Menjelang tahun 1996 Concept menjadi virus paling banyak yang disebarkan dalam dunia pengkomputeran

TAHUKAH ANDA KOMPUTER TERAWAL DI DUNIA ?



ENIAC, salah sebuah komputer terawal, memerlukan keluasan lantai 15,000 kaki persegi dan seberat 30 tan. Walau bagaimanapun, keupayaannya hanya satu pecahan berbanding komputer desktop biasa hari ini.

ENIAC, atau nama penuhnya Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, dibina oleh Dr. John W. Mauchley dan J. Presper Eckert, Jr. pada tahun 1946. Pada asalnya ia bertujuan untuk kegunaan sewaktu Perang Dunia Kedua, tetapi oleh kerana ia disiapkan selepas tamat perang, ENIAC tidak pernah digunakan untuk tujuan tersebut.
Posted by MOHD RAZIP B A

TAHUKAH ANDA...Shieldbug boleh mengesan kamera tersembunyi



PRODUK ini mempunyai reka bentuk seperti kumbang dan didatangkan dengan empat warna menarik. ERA digital masa kini banyak memperlihatkan penemuan gajet-gajet yang dicipta khusus untuk mempertingkatkan taraf kehidupan masyarakat.Namun, di sebalik kemajuan tersebut, ada segelintir pihak yang tidak bertanggungjawab menyalahgunakan teknologi untuk tujuan negatif.
Salah satu permasalahan yang sering dihadapi oleh masyarakat masa kini adalah berhadapan dengan kehadiran kamera pengintip yang dipasang dengan tujuan merakam video atau imej individu untuk tujuan tidak bermoral

PAINTING-ARTIS MEMPHIS





Bauhaus designers

The style of the bauhaus designers was formed by a lot of impressive characters, artists that worked as teachers in different sections of the bauhaus school. The workshops were focusing on specific materials as wood, metal or glass respectively imparting techniques to students as ceramics or skills learned in the bookbinder or the printing workshop. They were guided by masters of these times. Some of the bauhaus designers made their unforgettable name in the history of art though often these masters don´t get mentioned for their contribution to the education of Weimar students.

Among those teachers were men like Paul Klee,Oskar Schlemmer, Wassily Kandinsky and Lyonel Feininger, who had been engaged in the early days as a master for the furniture workshop. The most important figure in the first years has been Johannes Itten, an artist and teacher of art, who organized and structured the obligatory preliminary courses promoting a theory of forms.

Moreover later students from the bauhaus became famous designers. Marcel Breuer, who began his carrer with an apprenticeship in Weimar has become a worldwide respected designer of modern classic furniture, influenced by Gerry Rietveld, the creator of the zig zac chair, which you still can enjoy as a reproduction in our bauhaus furniture online store.

You will find reeditions referring to designers of the Bauhaus age in our big collection. It includes several masters from this period.

Tuesday, March 30, 2010

Bauhous Directors

Since 1919 to 1938, Bauhaus was directed by 4 influenced directors in art and design. Each of them had a different vision and opinion but Bauhaus principle and concept were still remaining as the time Gropius formed the school.WALTER GROPIUS (1919 -1928):He was a German architect and the founder of the Bauhaus in Weimar. Gropius had a working experience with architecture firm, Peter Behrens in 1908-1910. After 1910, he had a remarkable architecture design seminal modernist buildings, which was important and influenced the modern architecture since then.

Among his prolific design in sharing with some of his colleagues including the future Bauhaus director, Ludwig Mies van de Rohe, are the Faguswerk, a last shoe factory and the office and factory building for the Werkbund Exhibition (1914). After served in army during First World War, Gropius was appointed to be a new master of Weimar art schools, which he turned to be a new school of Bauhaus. After they moved to Dessau, Gropius took the responsibility to design the school building while the former Bauhaus student, Marcel Breuer was in charged in designing the school furnishing.HANNES MAYER (1928 - 1930):Hannes Mayer was a Swiss architect and the second director of Bauhaus. He was the former head of architecture department under Gropius leadership.

After taking over the Bauhaus from Gropius, Mayer thought his students to be focused more on the social aspect of the building, concentrating on the needs of the masses rather than the needs of few who lived in luxury. Under his leadership as Bauhaus director, Mayer brought the most two significant important building commissions for the school and five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau and the headquarters of the Federal School of German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau, thus the school turned its profit in 1929. Because of political factor and his taught of Marxist doctrine would jeopardize the future of Bauhaus Gropius fired him in 1930.

LUDWIG MIES VAN DE ROHE (1930-1933):As Rohe became the third director of Bauhaus, he turned the school into private institution. He was a former colleague with Walter Gropius before the formed of the Bauhaus and among the pioneering masters of modern architectures. As an educator, Rohe always used his poetic aphorisms, Less is more and God is in details. Rohe however, would not allowed any Mayers supporters to attend his private school.

The Bahaus School

In order to accomplish his idea of arts union, Gropius had his first new plan of action by merging the two Weimar art schools into one ambitious new school, Bauhaus in 1919 and he became the first director. After the Bauhaus formation as a new school in design and architecture, German politic at the same time was in crisis and turmoil gave affect to the future of the school. Bauhaus in Weimar only lasted until 1925 when Gropius announced the closure of the school. It was caused by the political struggle between Social Democrats Party and Nationalist Party. The leftist Social Democrats Party was Bauhaus patron whos funding all the school maintenance.

By losing its power to the Nationalist Party, that will be mean no funding to the school for the new party was anti and considered Bauhaus as a school of leftists and running leftist programmed.However, the Social Democrats Party in Dessau was still in control had offered Gropius a piece of land in their authority to rebuild the Bauhaus school with its own facilities. Only in a year the new building was ready to be used but in 1932, again, Bauhaus was force to leave their building and moved to Berlin.Bauhaus was finally closed by force of the Nazi regime in 1933. The Naziwho take control of German politic at that time were holding fascist doctrine and anti to the leftists including the Bauhaus education programmed. The Nazi were opposing the Bauhaus programmed and considered the school as the front for communists.

In 1937, American Association of Arts and Industries took an initiative to reform Bauhaus school in Chicago, United States and invited La¡ Moholy-Nagy to become the director. They used and developed the Bauhaus curriculum base on the German Bauhaus and employed some of the former Bauhaus staff, many of whom had left Germany due to the increasingly hostile political climate towards progressive art. However, Bauhaus school in Chicago only lasted a year.

The Bahaus School

Bauhaus was among the earliest school of design, formed in 1919 at Weimar, German. It was a school that combined all arts craft, architecture, fine art and design, in one roof. The combination of these art branches and the direction of Bauhaus first director had made them the most influential currents in modernist architecture and designs.Bauhaus, however, had a long and uneasy history since the prewar of the First World War. The convulsion of German politic at that time could not guarantee the future of this school to survive. Since 1919 to 1938, Bauhaus had to remove from a city to another because of the political straining.Before the form of Bauhaus, there were two schools of art in Weimar namely Weimar School of Art and Weimar Academy of Fine Arts.

In 1915, at the end of The First World War, the master of Weimar School of Art, Henry van de Valde was instructed to step down from his position as schoolmaster due to his nationality and substituted by Walter Gropius.With the changing of schoolmaster, the school future was directed to a new dimension in art educational. Gropius art philosophy was to unite all arts into one functional object to create a meaningful artwork or design. The unity between the arts had become Bauhaus principle and most of the Bauhaus designs influenced by new abstract geometrical style.

Sejarah Pen Dakwat

Lewis Waterman telah mencipta pen dakwat yang pertama pada 1884. Alat tulis yang berisi dakwat telah dibentuk dan ia wujud lebih dari 100 tahun sebelum penciptaan waterman. Contohnya, pen dakwat yang ada hingga sekarang telah direkabentuk oleh seorang warga Perancis bernama M. Bion pada 1702. Peregrin Williamson, pembuat kasut telah mendapat hak cipta sebagai seorang warga Amerika yang pertama pada 1809. John Scheffer telah menerima hak cipta British pada 1819 untuk pen separuh bulu, pen separuh logam yang disasarkan untuk pengeluaran massa. John Jacob Parker telah mendapat hak cipta untuk pen dakwat berisi pada 1831. Namun, model pen dakwat yang awal telah terjejas akibat limpahan dakwat dan kerosakan lain yang menyebabkan ia tidak diguna dan sukar dijual.

Bentuk pen dakwat wujud selepas penggunaan bulu untuk beribu-ribu tahun. Pencipta awal telah membuat pemerhatian yang jelas tentang dakwat yang disimpan dalam saluran lubang bulu burung lalu cuba untuk mencipta dengan kesan yang hampir sama dengan penciptaan manusia yang boleh menahan dakwat yang banyak dan tidak memerlukan pencedokan dakwat secara berterusan. Walaubagamana pun, buluh bukanlah pen, ia benda alam semulajadi yang diubahsuai untuk kegunaan manusia. Dengan penyimpanan dakwat pen yang nipis dan panjang yang diperbuat daripada getah dan hujung pen yang melekat di bawah, tidak cukup untuk mengeluarkan alat tulis yang lembut. Lewis Waterman, jurujual insurans telah mendapat semangat untuk membaiki kelemahan pen dakwat apabila dakwat pen yang digunakannya melimpah lalu merosakan surat perjanjian dengan kliennya. Idea Lewis Waterman adalah untuk menambah lubang angina pada hujung mata pen dan alur di dalam mekanisme kemasukan.

Mekanisme digubah dengan tiga bahagian utamanya. Hujung mata pen berhubung terus dengan kertas. Bahagian pengeluaran dakwat atau bahagian bawah hujung mata pen mengawal pengaliran dakwat dari tempat penyimpanannya. Tong bulat yang memegang hujung mata pen dan mengeluarkan dakwat untuk menulis, menghalang penyimpanan dakwat dari dalam. Semua pen mengandungi penyimpanan dakwat dalaman. Perbezaan penyimpanan dakwat membuktikan ialanya salah satu kwasan persaingan yang hebat dalam industri pen. Pada awal abad ke-19, pen diguna sebagai titisan mata. Pada 1915, kebanyakan pen berubah kepada pengisian sendirian yang lembut dan penyerap getah yang mudah melentur seperti tempat penyimpanan dakwat. Untuk mengisi semula dakwat, tempat penyimpanan akan ditekan rata oleh lapisan dalaman lalu hujung mata pen akan dimasukkan ke dalam botol dakwat. Selepas itu, tekanan lapisan dalaman dilepaskan supaya penyerap dakwat dipenuhi dengan dakwat yang segar.

HAK CIPTA BERBEZA YANG DITERBITKAN UNTUK PEN DAKWAT YANG BOLEH DIISI
Pengisi Butang ( Button Filler)
Hak ciptanya pada 1905 dan mula-mula ditawar oleh Syarikat Pen Parker pada 1913 sebagai alternatif untuk kaedah titisan mata. Tambahan butang ditambah pada alat tekanan dalaman yang meratakan penyerapan dakwat apabila ditekan.

Pengisi Tuil ( Lever Filler )
Water Sheaffer mendapat hak ciptanya pada 1908. Syarikat Pen W.A Sheaffer, Fort Madison, Iowa telah memperkenalkannya pada 1912. tuil luar menekan penyerap dakwat yang mudah melentur. Tuil berisi mengepam tong pen apabila ia tidak diguna. Pengisi tuil mendapat hadiah sebagai pemenang untuk 40 tahun yang akan datang manakala pengisi butang mendapat tempat kedua.

Pengisi Klik ( Click Filler )
Mula dipanggil sebagai pengisi sabit yang diperkenalkan secara komersial oleh Roy Conklin, Toledo. Reka bentuk Syarikat Pen Parker yang kemudian menggunakan nama pengisi klik. Apabila 2 alat menonjol keluar dari pen itu ditekan, penyerap dakwat akan menjadi kempis. Alat itu akan mengeluarkan bunyi ‘klik’ apabila penyerap tersebut penuh.

Pengisi batang mancis ( Matchstick Filler )
Ia diperkenalkan sekitar tahun 1910 oleh Syarikat Weidlich. Logam bulat dan lurus yang kecil pada pen atau pada batang mancis menekan alat tekanan dalaman melalui lubang yang ada dalam tong pen.

Pengisi Syiling ( Coin Filler )
Diusahakan oleh Lewis Waterman dalam usaha bersaing dengan hak cipta pengisi tuil yang dimiliki oleh Sheaffer. Lubang kecil dalam tong membolehkan syiling untuk mengempiskan alat tekanan dalaman, yang seakan-akan seperti pengisi batang mancis.

Terdapat 9 jenis hujung mata pen yang berstandard dengan 3 hujung mata pen yang berpotongan berbeza, iaitu tegak, serong dan condong. Dakwat awal menyebabkan hujung mata pen logam menghakis dan hujung mata pen emas membantu dalam penghakisan. Iridium digunakan pada hujung mata pen halus untuk menggantikan emas yang terlalu lembut. Kebanyakan pemilik ada huruf pertama yang bercantum pada penyepit pen. Ia mengambil masa selama 4 bulan untuk mencetuskan alat tulis yang baru sejak kewujudan hujung mata pen yang direka bentuk untuk mudah melentur apabila ditekan. Setiap hujung mata pen bersesuaian dengan gaya pemiliknya. Sebab itu, orang tidak berminat untuk meminjamkan pen dakwatnya kepada yang lain.

Kartrij dakwat yang diperkenalkan sekitar tahun 1950, tidak boleh dibuang, boleh diisi semula dalam kartrij plastik atau kaca yang direka untuk tujuan kebersihan dan kemasukan yang mudah. Ia merupakan kejayaan yang serta-merta. Pengenalan pen mata bulat, memberi naungan kepada penciptaan kartrij dan mengurangkan perniagaan bagi industri pen dakwat. Pen dakwat yang dijual kini adalah sebagai alat tulis klasik dan yang asli kini menjadi koleksi yang hebat.

Sejarah Pen

PEN

Mari kita beramai-ramai mengetahui tentang penghasilan sebuah pen.Pen (bahasa Latin penna, bulu pelepah) adalah alat menulis yang meletakkan dakwat pada permukaan, biasanya kertas. Pen boleh digunakan bersama pelbagai warna dakwat tetapi biasanya menggunakan dakwat dalam pelbagai kegelapan antara hitam, biru, merah, dan kadang-kala hijau. Ia kadang kala digunakan bagi judul, bulet (bullets) dan menombor.

ALAT TULIS SEHINGGA 6000 TAHUN

Sekitar 4000 BC
Manusia melakar permukaan papan tulis tanah liat yang lembut dengan gangsa atau tulang.

Sekitar 3000 BC
Orang Mesir telah membangunkan tulisan dengan gambar. Untuk menulis penyalin manuskrip, mereka menggunakan berus buluh yang nipis atau pen buluh.

1300 BC
Orang-orang Rome telah membangunkan batu tulisan yang mereka salin dalam kertas lilin yang nipis ( atas meja kayu ).
Mereka menggunakan jarum logam. Apabila mereka tidak memerlukan tulisan tersebut, mereka memadamkannya dengan rata menggunakan hujung jarum.
Di Asia, jarum logam digunakan untuk penyalinan.

Zaman Kegelapan ( Dark Ages )
Sebagaiman ditulis atas kertas kulit, Anglo-Saxons juga menggunakan buku yang diisi dengan lilin untuk nota dan bagi merancang aturan bahagian-bahagian buku besar.
Mereka menulis atas jadual dengan menggunakan sejenis jarum tulang atau logam, iaitu ianya mempunyai hujung yang tajam dan memadamkan perkataan dengan hujung yang rata.

600-1800 AD
Orang Eropah mendapati bahawa menulis atas kertas kulit dengan menggunakan pena bulu ayam telah mengubah gaya penulisan mereka.
Pada mulanya, mereka menggunakan huruf besar pada semua masa, tetapi kemudiannya mereka mengembangkan gaya lebih cepat dengan menggunakan huruf kecil.
Pena bulu ayam ( pertama kali muncul di Seville, Sepanyol ) merupakan alat tulis dari tahun 600 hingga 1800 AD.

1790-an
Pensel pertama telah dicipta di Perancis dan Australia tanpa bergantung kepada yang lain.

1800-1850
Pena logam yang tajam telah dipatenkan pada tahun 1803 tetapi patennya tidak dieksploitasi secara komersialnya.
Pada tahun 1830-an, mata pena keluli sudah biasa digunakan.
Pada abad ke-19, mata pena logam menggantikan pena bulu ayam.
Pada 1850, penggunaan pena bulu ayam beransur kurang dan kualiti mata pena keluli telah dipertingkatkan dengan aloi keras Iridium, Rhodium dan Osmium.

1884
Lewis Edson Waterman, broker insurans telah mencipta pena pertama yang bentuknya boleh diisi dengan dakwat (pena dakwat).

1888-1916
Dasar pena mata bola sebenarnya ditemukan sejak akhir abad ke-19 apabila patennya diambil alih oleh John Loud pada tahun 1888 untuk sebuah produk bagi menandakan bahannya diperbuat daripada kulit binatang dan dalam tahun 1916 oleh Van Vechten Riesberg.
Walaubagimanapun, tiada paten mereka dieksploitasi secara komersialnya.


1940-an
Versi moden pena mata bola telah dicipta oleh Josef ( Lazlo ) dan George Biro.
Pada musim panas 1943, model komersial pertama telah dibuat. Hakmilik untuk paten Lazlo telah dibeli oleh Kerajaan British.
Pena mata bola lebih kasar berbanding dengan pena dakwat yang kemungkinannya kenapa jualan melambung ketika Perang Dunia II apabila tentera memerlukan alat tulis yang tegap untuk terus hidup di persekitaran medan pertempuran.

Oktober 1945

Pena mata bola telah diperkenalkan di pasaran Amerika.
Pena ini telah dijual sebagai ‘pena pertama yang boleh ditulis di bawah permukaan air’. Sebanyak 10000 pena telah dijual pada majlis perasmian di New Cork pada 29 Oktober 1945.

1953
Pena mata bola murah yang pertama boleh didapati apabila French Baron, Bich telah mengembangkan proses indutri untuk mengeluarkan pena mata bola yang kos untinya rendah.

1960-an
Ianya telah mencipta pena gentian atau pena ‘felt-tip’ ( Syarikat Alat Tulis Tokio, Japan).
Pena Papermate Flair hádala pena ‘felt-tip’ yang pertama melambung naik di pasaran Amerika pada tahun 1960-an dan masih kekal sehingga kini.
Diikuti dengan kejayaan pertama dengan ‘felt-tip’, pengeluar telah membuka cabang dengan alat gentian termasuk penanda berwarna ( highlighter ) popular yang baru.

1980-an -1990-an
Pengenalan pena bola ‘roller’ telah dibuat pada awal tahun 1980-an.
Tidak seperti dakwat pekat yang digunakan dalam mata bola biasa, pena bola ‘roller’ menggunakan bola yang bergerak dan dakwat cecair untuk mengeluarkan garis yang licin.
Pencapaian teknologi yang maju ketika akhir tahun 1980-an dan awal 1990-an telah meningkatkan persembahan keseluruhan bola ‘roller’ ini.


1990-an
Alat tulis yang dilapik dengan getah biasanya digunakan oleh syarikat-syarikat untuk mengurangkan genggaman.

Daripada 1997
Pengeluaran pena cincin ( Ring Pen) secara besar-besaran dibuat oleh Syarikat GRANDEE.
Pena ini telah dibentuk untuk menulis tanpa menggenggam pen dengan 3 jari.


Pena – Cincin. Pena pertama dalam sejarah 6000 tahun, yang tidak memerlukan untuk menggenggam
Tiada genggam. Tiada sakit.

Campbell's Soup Cans



Campbell's Soup Cans (sometimes referred to as 32 Campbell's Soup Cans) is a work of art produced in 1962 by Andy Warhol.

It consists of thirty-two canvases, each measuring 20 inches (510 mm) in height × 16 inches (410 mm) in width and each consisting of a painting of a Campbell's Soup can—one of each of the canned soup varieties the company offered at the time.The individual paintings were produced with a semi-mechanized silkscreen process, using a non-painterly style. Campbell's Soup Cans' reliance on themes from popular culture helped to usher in pop art as a major art movement.

For Warhol, a commercial illustrator who became a successful author, painter, and film director, the work was his first one-man gallery exhibition as a fine artist. First exhibited in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles, California, it marked the West Coast debut of pop art. The combination of the semi-mechanized process, the non-painterly style, and the commercial subject initially caused offense, as the work's blatantly mundane commercialism represented a direct affront to the technique and philosophy of abstract expressionism. The abstract expressionism art movement was dominant during the post-war period, and it held not only to "fine art" values and aesthetics but also to a mystical inclination.

This controversy led to a great deal of debate about the merits and ethics of such work. Warhol's motives as an artist were questioned, and they continue to be topical to this day. The large public commotion helped transform Warhol from being an accomplished 1950s commercial illustrator to a notable fine artist, and it helped distinguish him from other rising pop artists. Although commercial demand for his paintings was not immediate, Warhol's association with the subject led to his name becoming synonymous with the Campbell's Soup can paintings.

Warhol subsequently produced a wide variety of art works depicting Campbell's Soup cans during three distinct phases of his career, and he produced other works using a variety of images from the world of commerce and mass media. Today, the Campbell's Soup cans theme is generally used in reference to the original set of paintings as well as the later Warhol drawings and paintings depicting Campbell's Soup cans. Because of the eventual popularity of the entire series of similarly themed works, Warhol's reputation grew to the point where he was not only the most-renowned American pop art artist,but also the highest-priced living American artist.

Biography for Andy Warhol


Andy Warhol was born Andrew Warhola in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1928. In 1945 he entered the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) where he majored in pictorial design. Upon graduation, Warhol moved to New York where he found steady work as a commercial artist. He worked as an illustrator for several magazines including Vogue, Harper's Bazaar and The New Yorker and did advertising and window displays for retail stores such as Bonwit Teller and I. Miller. Prophetically, his first assignment was for Glamour magazine for an article titled "Success is a Job in New York."

Throughout the 1950s, Warhol enjoyed a successful career as a commercial artist, winning several commendations from the Art Director's Club and the American Institute of Graphic Arts. In these early years, he shortened his name to "Warhol." In 1952, the artist had his first individual show at the Hugo Gallery, exhibiting Fifteen Drawings Based on the Writings of Truman Capote. His work was exhibited in several other venues during the 1950s, including his first group show at The Museum of Modern Art in 1956.

The 1960s was an extremely prolific decade for Warhol. Appropriating images from popular culture, Warhol created many paintings that remain icons of 20th-century art, such as the Campbell's Soup Cans, Disasters and Marilyns. In addition to painting, Warhol made several 16mm films which have become underground classics such as Chelsea Girls, Empire and Blow Job. In 1968, Valerie Solanis, founder and sole member of SCUM (Society for Cutting Up Men) walked into Warhol's studio, known as the Factory, and shot the artist. The attack was nearly fatal.

At the start of the 1970s, Warhol began publishing Interview magazine and renewed his focus on painting. Works created in this decade include Maos, Skulls, Hammer and Sickles, Torsos and Shadows and many commissioned portraits. Warhol also published The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (from A to B and Back Again). Firmly established as a major 20th-century artist and international celebrity, Warhol exhibited his work extensively in museums and galleries around the world.

The artist began the 1980s with the publication of POPism: The Warhol '60s and with exhibitions of Portraits of Jews of the Twentieth Century and the Retrospectives and Reversal series. He also created two cable television shows, "Andy Warhol's TV" in 1982 and "Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes" for MTV in 1986. His paintings from the 1980s include The Last Suppers, Rorschachs and, in a return to his first great theme of Pop, a series called Ads. Warhol also engaged in a series of collaborations with younger artists, including Jean-Michel Basquiat, Francesco Clemente and Keith Haring.

Following routine gall bladder surgery, Andy Warhol died February 22, 1987. After his burial in Pittsburgh, his friends and associates organized a memorial mass at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York that was attended by more than 2,000 people.

In 1989, the Museum of Modern Art in New York had a major retrospective of his works.

The Andy Warhol Museum opened in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in May 1994.

Gallery of American Chair














"The African Chair: Marcel Breuer and Gunta Stölzl with Works by Bauhaus Artists"



"African Chair"

Oak and cherrywood
Painted in blue, different reds, yellow, gold;
adapted to the colour scheme of the fabric
Warp: strongly twisted hemp
Weft: hemp, wool, cotton. silk
1921
179.4 x 65 x 67.1 (HxWxD)

Bauhaus-Archiv, Berlin

The African Chair, created by Marcel Breuer in collaboration with the weaver Gunta Stölzl. The only previously known documentation of this throne-like piece of furniture was a contemporary black-and-white photograph. Made of painted wood with a colourful textile weave, this chair embodies the spirit of the early Bauhaus like no other object. It is the first work by Marcel Breuer, who later went on to write design history with his tubular steel furniture. With the support of the Ernst von Siemens Art Foundation, it was possible to secure this legendary and unique work for the collection of the Bauhaus Archive in Berlin.

Even today, the colourfully painted and upholstered oak chair evokes visual associations that are linked to its title; however, this provides no information about the original purpose of the chair. A wide range of hypothetical uses at the time of its inception are possible: the chair could have served as a 'throne' for the Bauhaus director, who defined his role as master of a building lodge in accordance with the self-image of the early Bauhaus. The throne-like construction could also refer to the understanding of architecture as the mother of all arts in classical architectural theory, with the architect as leader and organiser - a role with which Walter Gropius identified all of his life.

Equally conceivable is the interpretation of this piece of furniture as a symbolic wedding chair, giving expression to the close relationship between Marcel Breuer and Gunta Stölzl at the time. All of these attempted explanations are filtered from the many ideas and theories that were circulating simultaneously in the early years of the Bauhaus; neither then nor later was any specific comments made regarding the chair. With the emergence of the Bauhaus maxim Art and Technology - A New Unity beginning in 1923, it became a symbol for an era of Bauhaus history that had come to an end. Accordingly, it is a peerless physical manifestation of the complex conceptual universe of the early Bauhaus.

The Bauhaus Archive is presenting this chair within the context of additional works from the early Bauhaus which emphasise its unique significance. The exhibition also includes a representation of Marcel Breuer's Bauhaus Film, which was published in 1926 and attempts to demonstrate the development of furniture design at the Bauhaus - from the African Chair to tubular steel furniture.

Biography for Marcel Breuer



Marcel Breuer (1902-1981), born in Hungary and trained at the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany, is heralded as having produced the first tubular steel armchair, his pieces pioneering the demand for tubular steel furniture throughout the 1920s and 1930s. These pieces, along with his innovative laminated wood furniture and his unique architectural interpretation of light and space yielded a great deal of international respect and inspired the work of a wide range of designers. Breuer is seen as one of the forefathers of the energetic aesthetic of uninhibited experimentation, combined with a high standard of artistry, that the design industry enjoyed throughout the second half of the century.

Breuer studied under Walter Gropius at the Bauhaus from 1920-24. During his student years he designed furniture for the Bauhaus model house, and created pieces like the hand-carved "African" throne. Although whimsical and formally a distant relative to his later work, the chair initiated the technique of taut, minimal upholstery that would become one of his trademarks touches. He also designed a solid, blocky armchair for the Sommerfield House in 1921, and a desk chair with a woven, multicolored seat and back. Both of these pieces exhibit a starkly different method of achieving comfort than his later streamlined, even clinical, pieces. When the

Bauhaus moved to Dessau in 1925, Breuer designed furniture for the new campus and became head of the furniture workshop, a position that he held until 1928. Also in 1925, Breuer created the famous tubular steel "Wassily" chair, purportedly inspired both by constructivist aesthetics and by the handlebars of his new bike. This piece, made for Wassily Kandinsky's space in Dessau, and referred to by the Bauhaus designers as "the abstract chair," made the user look as though they were floating on the upholstered seat within the steel cube frame. The chair was innovative in that it was extremely light, and was built entirely from ready-made tubes that were welded together. Several different companies sold the piece until it was picked up by Knoll.

In 1928 he started a private practice in Berlin and came out with his "Cesca" cantilever chair and stool, named after his daughter and probably inspired by Mies Van der Rohe. He worked with other cantilever designs, exhibiting one of the few couches made in this style at a 1930 show in Berlin. In 1935 Breuer, for the English company Isokon, produced a laminated wood chaise lounge and chair that, although innovative in the way they mimicked the human form, were never made as sturdily as his steel pieces. A 1936 molded plywood chair he made inspired the work of the Eames a decade later and his nested tables revisited the form of some he produced earlier in steel.

In 1937 he moved to America and worked as an architect with Gropius in Massachusetts. From 1937-1947 he taught architecture at Harvard, and was commissioned by his former student Eliot Noyes to design buildings for IBM. In 1946 he started his own office in New York City and over the next decade or so, designed and furnished over seventy remarkably similar private houses and college dormitories, for Bryn Mawr and Vassar, in and around New England. His work remains relevant due to his flexible structural philosophy that, "a chair...should not be horizontal/vertical, nor should it be expressionist, nor constructivist, nor designed purely for expediency, nor made to 'match' a table it should be a good chair."
Date Development

1418

Giovanni Fontana built the first human powered land vehicle -- it had four wheels and used an endless rope connected via gears to the wheels.

1493

Sketches showing a primitive version of a bicycle, purported drawn by Leonardo Da Vanci, surfaced in 1974. Further examination of the drawings indicates these are not by da Vinci's hand. The speculation that these are a sketch by a pupil after a lost drawing by da Vinci is also considered false. An age test was performed, but the library in Milan (belonging to the Vatican) conceals its negative outcome. Experts consider the sketches a hoax.

1791

Comte de Sicrac is credited with building the "celerifer" - purportedly a hobby horse with two wheels instead of a rocker. This is now considered a patriotic hoax created by a French historian in 1891. It was debunked by a French researcher in 1976. In fact, a Jean Sievrac (!) of Marseille obtained an import price for a four-wheeled speed coach called celerifer in 1817.

1817


HISTORY BICYCLE – TIMELINE

Variously called the running machine, velocipede, Draisienne and dandy horse, it was invented by Karl Drais, in response to widespread starvation and the slaughtering of horses, the consequence of a crop failure the year before (caused by the eruption of Tambora). It had a steer-able front wheel. This is the first appearance of the two-wheeler principle that is basic to cycling and motorcycling and minimizes rolling resistance. The velocipedes were made entirely of wood and needed to be balanced by directing the front wheel a bit. People then did not dare to lift the feet off safe ground, therefore the velocipedes were propelled by pushing off with the feet. After the good harvest in 1817 riding velocipedes on sidewalks was forbidden worldwide, since the velocipeders used the sidewalks, and because they could not balance on the rutted carriageway, the fad passed. It took nearly 50 years, until a roller-skating boom created a new public with a better sense of balance.

1839

Another entry in bicycle lore: Kirkpatric Mcmillan, a Scottish blacksmith adapted a treadle-type pedals to a bicycle, is considered a hoax.

1863



Bone Shaker or Velocipede: Made of stiff materials, straight angles and steel wheels make this bike literally a bone shaker to ride over the cobblestone roads of the day. The improvement is a front wheel with peddles -- direct drive, fixed gear, one speed. This machine was known as the velocipede ("fast foot"), but was popularly known as the bone shaker, They also became a fad, and indoor riding academies, similar to roller rinks, could be found in large cities.

1870



Ordinary: These are better know as the "high wheelers". It is more comfortable to ride than its predecessor, but it requires an acrobat so they popularity has always been limited. This was the first all metal machine to appeared. (Previous to this metallurgy was not advanced enough to provide metal which was strong enough to make small, light parts out of.) The pedals were still attached directly to the front wheel with no freewheeling mechanism. Solid rubber tires and the long spokes of the large front wheel provided a much smoother ride than its predecessor. The front wheels became larger and larger as makers realized that the larger the wheel, the farther you could travel with one rotation of the pedals. You would purchase a wheel as large as your leg length would allow. These bicycles enjoyed a great popularity among young men of means (they cost an average worker six month's pay), with the hey-day being the decade of the 1880's. Because the rider sat so high above the center of gravity, if the front wheel was stopped by a stone or rut in the road, or the sudden emergence of a dog, the entire apparatus rotated forward on its front axle, and the rider, with his legs trapped under the handlebars, was dropped unceremoniously on his head. Here the term "taking a header" came into being. This machine was the first one to be called a bicycle ("two wheel").

1872

Friedrich Fischer (German) first mass-produces steel ball bearings, patented by Jules Suriray in 1869.

1876

Browett and Harrison (English) patent an early caliper brake.

1878

Scott and Phillott (English) patent the first practicable epicyclic change-speed gear fitted into the hub of a front-driving bicycle.

1879

Henry J. Lawson (English) patents a rear wheel, chain-driven safety bicycle, the “Bicyclette” (his earlier models were lever driven).

1880

Thomas Humber (English) adapts the block chain for use with his range of bicycles.

1880's

While the men were risking their necks on the high wheels, ladies, confined to their long skirts and corsets, could take a spin around the park on an adult tricycle. These machines also afforded more dignity to gentlemen such as doctors and clergymen. Many mechanical innovations now associated with the automobile were originally invented for tricycles. Rack and pinion steering, the differential, and band brakes, to name a few!

1880

Bicycle Activism: Good roads society organized by bicyclist and lobbied for good roads -- paving the way for motor vehicles!

1884

Thomas Stevens struck out across the country, carrying socks, a spare shirt and a slicker that doubled as tent and bedroll. Leaving San Francisco at 8 o'clock on April 22, 1884, he traveled eastward, reaching Boston after 3700 wagon trail miles, to complete the first transcontinental bicycle ride on August 4, 1884. After a pause, he continued east, circumnavigating earth, and returning to San Francisco on Dec 24, 1886.

1888

Pneumatic tire: First applied to the bicycle by an Irish veterinarian who was trying to give his sickly young son a more comfortable ride on his tricycle. This inventive young doctor's name was Dunlop. Now that comfort and safety could be had in the same package, and that package was getting cheaper as manufacturing methods improved, everyone clamored to ride the bicycle.

1890

Safety Bike: As the name implies the safety bike is safer than the ordinary. The further improvement of metallurgy sparked the next innovation, or rather return to previous design. With metal that was now strong enough to make a fine chain and sprocket small and light enough for a human being to power, the next design was a return to the original configuration of two same-size wheels, only now, instead of just one wheel circumference for every pedal turn, you could, through the gear ratios, have a speed the same as the huge high-wheel. Initially, the bicycles still had the hard rubber tires, and in the absence of the long, shock-absorbing spokes, the ride they provided was much more uncomfortable than any of the high-wheel designs. Many of these bicycles of 100 years ago had front and/or rear suspensions. These designs competed with each other, your choice being the high-wheel's comfort or the safety's safety, but the next innovation tolled the death of the high-wheel design -- pneumatic tires. This is basically the same design as standard contemporary bikes. The safety bike allowed large numbers of people to take up cycling. Bikes were relatively expensive so use was somewhat restrict to the elite.

1890



Mass Production: The bicycle helped make the Gay Nineties what they were. It was a practical investment for the working man as transportation, and gave him a much greater flexibility for leisure. Women would also start riding bicycles in much larger numbers.

1894

Change In Social Order: Betty Bloomer's bloomers become very popular. Ladies, heretofore consigned to riding the heavy adult size tricycles that were only practical for taking a turn around the park, now could ride a much more versatile machine and still keep their legs covered with long skirts. The bicycle craze killed the bustle and the corset, instituted "common-sense dressing" for women and increased their mobility considerably. Victorian women cyclists. American Music and women bicyclists. Women and bicycles.

1894



The bicycle messenger business started in California when a railway strike halted mail delivery for the Bay Area. An ingenious bicycle shop owner in Fresno came up with the idea to deliver it by bicycle. He set up a relay between Fresno and San Francisco, with 6 riders covering about 30 miles each. The last rider would cover 60 miles.

1894-95

Annie Cohan (a.k.a. Annie Londonderry) bicycles around the world. Scant information has her leaving Boston in June 1894 on her Sterling bike and finishing her ride in Chicago in Sept 1895.

1895

Ignatz Schwinn and Adolph Arnold formed Arnold, Schwinn & Company to produce bikes.

1896

"Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel. It gives woman a feeling of freedom and self-reliance." Susan B Anthony

1899-1900

Major Taylor was the American cycling sprint champion, and he topped all

European champions as well. Taylor was one of the first black athletes to become a world champion in any sport. (Taylor is celebrated in Andrew Richie's book Major Taylor: The Extraordinary Career of a Champion Bicycle Racer, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.)

1903

Internal hub gears invented by Sturmey Archer. By 1930 these were used on bikes manufactured around the world. Their dominance lasted until the 1950s the parallelogram derailleur was introduced.

1920

Kids Bikes: The focus of planning and development of the transportation

infrastructure was the private automobiles. Bicycles use declined and the bicycle was considered primarily as children's toys. Kids bikes were introduced just after the First World War by several manufacturers, such as Mead, Sears Roebuck, and Montgomery Ward, to revitalize the bike industry (Schwinn made its big splash slightly later), these designs, now called "classic", featured automobile and motorcycle elements to appeal to kids who, presumably, would rather have a motor. If ever a bike needed a motor, this was it. These bikes evolved into the most glamorous, fabulous, ostentatious, heavy designs ever. It is unbelievable today that 14-year-old kids could do the tricks that we did on these 65 pound machines! They were built into the middle 50s, by which time they had taken on design elements of jet aircraft and even rockets. By the 60s, they were becoming leaner and simpler.

1930

Tullio Campagnolo patents the quick release hub.

1930's

Schwinn introduced the fat tire, spring fork, streamline Excelsior, designed to take the abuse of teenage boys, which was the proto-type mountain bike. The Schwinn Excelsior frames became the model for the early mountain bikes almost fifty years later.

1938

Simplex introduced their cable shifted derailleur.

1940

Women bicyclists in the French Resistance. by Rebecca G. Halbreich, published in Ex Post Facto, 1994

1950s



Tullio Campagnolo introduced cable-operated, parallelogram derailleur. Campagnolo. For two decades Campagnolo equipment dominated true racing bikes. Eventually, he acquires 135 patents.

1958

Women ride in the first-ever World Championships on the road and track. Balina Ermolaeva becomes the first women's World Sprint Champion; Elsy Jacobs takes the road race.

1962

Renaissance: President's Council of Physical Fitness. Renewed interest in bicycle for recreation and fitness. This was the seed of a new major bicycle boom that accelerated through the 60's. The "English 3-speed" was the fancy consumer model of the time. Before the end of the decade it was the 10-speed derailleur "racing bike" which dominated the American market (the derailleur had been invented before the turn of the century and had been in more-or-less common use in Europe since).

1970

Earth Day: Increased awareness of westerns civilization's level of consumption of natural resources, air pollution, and destruction of the natural environment. This generated a new spurt in the growth of bicycle sales and bicycling, especially around college campuses.

1973

Oil embargo: Fuel shortages and shifts in relative price of transportation options created an environment which encouraged bicycle commuting. Many of the new recruits to bicycling stuck to it after the end of the embargo and became enthusiasts. There was also reinvigorated interest in the engineering of bicycles, including renewed interest recumbent and fairings.

1977

The prototype of the mountain bikes were first developed in Marin Co, California, north of San Francisco. Joe Breeze, Otis Guy, Gary Fisher, and Craig Mitchell were the earliest designers, builders and promoters.

1978

A new round of steep oil prices increases further encouraged bicycling. More bikes than car were being sold in the USA. Triple chain-ring cranks had become widely available, adding to the range of situation that bicycle were practical for.

1980's

Renewed interests in health and fitness, by the middle and upper class perpetuated the acceptance and growth of commuting, recreational and touring bicycling.

1980's

Bike messengers develop should backs to carry large envelopes flat. The style migrates into general use as an alternative to back packs, ruck sacks and purses.

1980's

Aerobic exercisers take the padding out of bike shorts and use them in exercise class. The style migrates into general use -- some wearers haven't exercised in decades.

1984

Tour de France Feminine run for the first time (winner: Marianne Martin.)

1984

Women's road race included in the Olympics for the first time (winner: Connie Carpenter.) Successes by American racing cyclist in the 1984 Olympics drew attention and added prestige to cycling. The ranks of racing cyclists grew substantially.

1984

Cogs began to be added to the rear gear cluster the number of speeds increase from 15 to 18, 21 and 24.

1984

Three-time national XC champion Jacquie Phelan founds the Women's Mountain Bike and Tea Society; the first formal outreach organization for women. WOMBATS is dedicated to introducing women to mountain biking in a fun, non-competitive environment.

1990

Shimano (Japanese) introduces integrated brake/gear levers.

1994

Sachs (SRAM) introduces PowerDisc, the first mass-produced hydraulic disc brake system.

1996

Mountain Bike compete at the Olympic Games for the first time in Atlanta, GA USA.

1986

Department of the Interior and Nielson surveys show that bicycling is the third most popular participatory sport after swimming and general exercise.

2000

Rohloff Speedhub 14 speed internal hub gearing system, with no overlapping ratios and a gear range as wide as a 27-speed derailleur system.

2002

Campagnolo introduces 10 cog rear cluster, allowing 30 speed bicycles.

History of Bicycle

A student of Leonardo da Vinci, named Giacomo Caprotti, created the original design for a bicycle. But a Frenchman named Monsieur Sivrac in the 1790s created the first bicycle. It was called the Célérifère (say-lay-ri-fair). It had no pedals, so you had to use feet to ride it. It also had no handlebars, so you couldn’t steer it. You would have to go straight. It was made out of wood.

The next step in bicycle evolution was the Laufmaschine. It was also known as the Draisienne and the Hobby Horse. A German man named Baron von Drais made it in 1817. Unlike the Célérifère, it had the ability to steer.

Kirkpatrick Macmillan created the first bicycle with pedals in 1839. You would push the pedals back and forth which turned the wheel.

In the early 1860s, a Frenchman named Pierre Lallement made the velocipede. It had two steel wheels. The one in front was slightly larger than the other. Its pedals were connected to the front wheel, so when you pedaled, the front wheel would rotate pulling the back one with it.



Bicycles with high wheels were very popular in the late 1800s. In 1871, the high wheel bicycle was invented; it was the first bicycle to be called a bicycle. They were the first all metal bicycle, because up to that date, light metal parts could not be made strong enough. They had one big wheel in the front and one small wheel in the back. They ran a lot more smoothly than bicycles before it but were a lot more dangerous. If you hit a rock or rut or sometimes even by applying the brakes, you would fly over the handlebars of your bike.

highwheel bicycle

For the women with long skirts and dresses and the better dressed men, there was the tricycle. The tricycle was a three-wheeled machine that worked just like the bicycle only it was safer. However, it was harder to steer on turns. They were made in the 1880’s.

To make the high-wheeled bicycle safer, they switched the front and back wheels around, putting the smaller wheel in front and the larger wheel in back. This design made the bicycle less likely to tip forward. These bicycles were known as high wheel safety bikes.

Safety bikes were the next step in bicycle evolution. With stronger metals available, they were able to make a small sprocket and chain that was light enough for a human being to power. The safety bike had two wheels the same size. In 1888, an Irish veterinarian named Dunlop, invented the pneumatic tire. These tires were a lot more comfortable to ride on. The pneumatic tire design was sometimes used on safety bikes.

In 1920, the kid’s bike was introduced. Since adults were riding in automobiles, the market needed someone to buy their bicycles.

The mountain bike was first mass-produced in the early 1980’s at a time when bicycling became popular for exercise and recreation.

Although the mechanics of bicycles have improved over time, the basic concept of this people-powered machine has stayed the same for hundreds of years.

History of Coca Cola Bottle


In 1886, Coca-Cola was only sold out of soda fountains for 5 cents a glass. In those days, putting soda-drinks in bottles wasn't an easy task since a way to get an air-tight seal on a bottle had not yet been developed.

In 1894 a man by the name of Joseph Augustas Biedenharn, a 28 year old candy merchant from Vicksburg, Mississippi, began selling Coca-Cola in bottles. The bottle he used is known to us as the Hutchinson stopper-type glass bottle, utilizing an iron stopper and rubber washer.

In 1899, Asa Griggs Candler, owner of Coca-Cola, gave two young attorneys, Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead of Chattanooga, Tennessee, the rights to bottle Coca-Cola across most of the United States. Because Candler wasn't confident it could be done, the two men only had to pay one dollar for the bottling rights. Thomas and Whitehead not only succeeded, they also started a network of bottling companies. Soon there after, a third Chattanooga lawyer by the name of John T. Lupton would join their venture. By 1909, 379 bottling companies were in operation across the United States.

By 1905, Coca-Cola would be sold in the second bottle type. This bottle is known to us as the crown top, straight-sided bottle, utilizing a cap instead of a stopper. These bottles came in amber, clear and light green colors, and were also the first to have labels on them. Millions of these bottles were used until Coca-Cola started running into problems with their competitors who were trying to imitate Coca-Cola. The imitators came up with names like Coke-Ola, Koka-Nola, Its-a-Cola, Klu Ko Kolo, Loco Cola, Toca-Cola and Zero-Cola. This of course posed a serious problem for Coca-Cola.

Fortunately in 1913, Harold Hirsch, a lawyer for the Coca-Cola Company, came up with a plan. He helped Coca-Cola launch a national competition in which bottle manufacturers across the country would be asked to design a distinctive bottle - a bottle which a person could recognize even if they felt it in the dark, and so shaped that, even if broken, a person could tell at a glance what it was. The bottle manufacturer that won this competition was the Root Glass Company of Terre Haute, Indiana. Inspired by a picture of a cocoa pod which was found in an encyclopedia at the Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library, Earl R. Dean, the designer, made a pencil sketch of the bottle. From this sketch, the contour bottle prototype was made. The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base. This would make it unstable on the conveyor belts. Dean then reduced the middle diameter and the Contour Coca-Cola Bottle was born.

The Contour Coca-Cola Bottle became one of the few packages to achieve trademark status by the U.S. Patent Office. Today, it's considered the most recognized package design on the planet ... yes, even in the dark !

Today, there are only two prototype bottles in existence. One is enshrined in a showcase by the Coca-Cola Company at it's museum in Atlanta, Georgia. The other bottle, as well as Dean's original pencil drawing, is in the possession of one of his sons.